1 17 General introduction everyone has bad intentions (maladaptive other-schemas), while on the other hand it may lead them to believe that they are unloved, worthless, or unwanted (maladaptive self-schemas) (Baugh et al., 2019; Gobin & Freyd, 2014). These beliefs put them at risk for the development of internalizing disorders, such as anxiety and depression, and can contribute to interpersonal difficulties and problems in affiliative bond formation and maintenance (Reyome, 2010; Riggs, 2010; Wright et al., 2009). Moreover, there is evidence for the intergenerational transmission of childhood emotional maltreatment, showing that having a history of childhood emotional maltreatment as a parent raises the risk of maltreating one’s own children (Lotto et al., 2023; Madigan et al., 2019). It is of note, however, that this relationship is far from deterministic in a way that people who have been maltreated as a child not always become a perpetrator of emotional maltreatment towards their own children (Madigan et al., 2019). Depression is common during adolescence. This is thought to be linked to the enhanced sensitivity to social evaluation during adolescence, which may make adolescents especially vulnerable to develop depression in response to negative social experiences (e.g., bullying, exclusion, and rejection) (Crone & Dahl, 2012; Dahl, 2004; Giedd & Rapoport, 2010; Hankin & Abramson, 2001; Wilson et al., 2015). Adolescent depression is characterized by difficulties in the social domain, including social isolation and dysfunctional interpersonal relationships, putting a strain on their relationship with others, including peers and parents (Babore et al., 2016; Branje et al., 2010; Heaven et al., 2004; Sheeber et al., 2001). The latter is also reflected in studies who found that depressed adolescents reported lower levels of relationship satisfaction with their parents compared to non-depressed adolescents, although it is unsure whether this is related to an altered perception due to their depressed state or to an actually worse relationship with their parents (Branje et al., 2010; Restifo & Bögels, 2009; Sheeber et al., 2001; Yap et al., 2014). PARENTAL EMPATHY Empathy can generally be defined as the capacity to share an emotional state with another individual, assess the reasons for the other’s state, and identify with the other by adopting his or her perspective (De Waal & Preston, 2017). Although the capacity to empathically respond to others is essential to the regulation of social interactions in general, it is thought to be evolved in the context of caregiving. Parental empathy is deemed fundamental for sensitive caregiving (Abraham et al., 2018; De Waal, 2008; Decety, 2011). As our social lives became increasingly complex across human evolution, caregiving behavior became more complex too. Consequently, human caregiving slowly transitioned from mainly protecting offspring from potential physical threats into preparing them for successfully navigating in our complex social worlds. Empathic parents provide more attuned care for their children, resulting in securely attached and stable
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