Proefschrift

128 6 CHAPTER 6 analysis of the concept, by connecting it more directly to some coming from the philosophical debate on free will and moral responsibility. Mecacci and Santoni De Sio (2019) operationalized this concept of Meaningful Human Control even further in order to specify design requirements. Their framework shows that the narrow focus of engineering and human factors control needs to be widened to allow a development of autonomous technologies that are sufficiently responsive to ethical and societal needs. We may call this broad Meaningful Human Control. In recent years, several scholars have been working on operationalising the concept of Meaningful Human Control (Amoroso and Tamburrini, 2021; Umbrello, 2021; Cavalcante Siebert et al., 2022). All of these approaches have in common that they focus on the human-machine interaction in order to operationalise the concept of Meaningful Human Control. Either by bridging the gap between weapon usage and ethical principles based on ‘if-then’ rules (Amoroso & Tamburrini, 2021), creating actional properties for the design of AI systems in which each of the properties human and artificial agents interact (Cavalcante Siebert et al., 2022), or proposing two LoA’s in which different agents have different levels of control over the decision-making process to deploy an Autonomous Weapon System (Umbrello, 2021). However, the wider conception of the control loop mentioned above does not incorporate the social institutional and design dimension at a governance level. The governance level is the most important level for oversight and needs to be added to the control loop, because accountability requires strong mechanisms in order to oversee, discuss and verify the behaviour of the system to check if its behaviour is aligned with human values and norms. Institutions and oversight mechanisms need to be consciously designed to create a proactive feedback loop that allows actors to account for, learn and reflect on their actions. Therefore, we look at an oversight mechanism to connect the technical, socio-technical and governance perspective of control which may ensure solid controllability and accountability for the behaviour of Autonomous Weapon Systems. To connect these perspectives, we propose a Framework for Comprehensive Human Oversight that broadens the view on the control over Autonomous Weapon Systems and take a comprehensive approach that goes beyond the notions of control described above.

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