176 Table 4: Overview definitions of value literature (section 2.5) Author(s) Key contribution Definition of value Values Schwartz (1994) The study looks at potential universality of human values and specifies a set of dynamic relations amongst these values. The study did not find universal aspects of values, but found support for near universality of four higher order value types. Also, the study found considerable evidence that the ten value types are recognized by many people in contemporary societies. Values are defined as: “desirable transsituational goals, varying in importance, that serve as guiding principles in the life of a person or other social entity.” (p. 21) Five features make up the conceptual definition of human values: “(1) belief (2) pertaining to desirable end states or modes of conduct, that (3) transcends specific situations, (4) guides selection or evaluation of behaviour, people, and events, and (5) is ordered by importance relative to other values to form a system of value priorities (Schwartz,1992; Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987, 1990)” (p. 20) 1. Power: Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources (authority, wealth, social power)2. 2. Achievement: Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards (ambitious, successful, capable, influential). 3. Hedonism: Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself (pleasure, enjoying life, self-indulgent). 4. Stimulation: Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life (a varied life, an exciting life, daring). 5. Self-direction: Independent thought and action- choosing, creating, exploring (creativity, freedom, choosing own goals, curious, independent). 6. Universalism: Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature (broadminded, social justice, equality, world at peace, world of beauty, unity with nature, wisdom, protecting the environment). 7. Benevolence: Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal contact (helpful, honest, forgiving, responsible, loyal, true friendship, mature love). 8. Tradition: Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provide (respect for tradition, humble, devout, accepting my portion in life). 9. Conformity: Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms (obedient, self-discipline, politeness, honouring parents and elders). 10.Security: Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self (social order, family security, national security, clean, reciprocation of favours). APPENDIX C
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