41 2 EXTENSIVE LITERATURE REVIEW serve as guiding principles of what people consider important in life’. Although a rather simple description, we think it captures the description of a value best, because it combines several definitions in one using the main characteristics of values. Therefore, we will adhere to the definition of Cheng and Fleischmann (2010) in our study. Universal values Some research suggests that people across cultures identify with basic values which can be considered as universal human values (Friedman, Kahn Jr, Borning, & Huldtgren, 2013; Graham et al., 2012; Schwartz, 2012). Although individuals differ in attribution of importance of the values, there seems to be a surprisingly high consensus across cultures on the hierarchical order of the values (Schwartz, 2012). As part of their research some researchers created so called value inventories, which are lists of items that can be used to categorise the analysis of human values and are often accompanied by a descriptive tool for discussions on these values (Cheng & Fleischmann, 2010). The most common and well-studied value inventories are those of Schwartz (1994), Friedman et al. (2013), Beauchamp and Walters (1999) and Graham et al. (2012). The number of universal values found by researchers varies greatly. An overview of these value inventories is displayed in Table 4 in appendix C and the theories will be briefly described in the next paragraph. Based on extensive empirical research, Schwartz (1994) mentions 10 distinct motivational types of values that are subdivided in a more fine-grained list of 56 value items which he uses to survey the 10 overarching universal values. In their description of the ValueSensitive Design approach, Friedman et al. (2013) mention 12 values of which the first 9 are based on consequentialists and deontological moral orientations and the last 3 are chosen from the field of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) field. Graham et al. (2012) uses the term ‘foundation’ to describe the 5 distinct values that specify the universality of human moral nature that Haidt and Joseph (2004) use as basis of the Moral Foundation Theory. Gouveia, Milfont, and Guerra (2014) drafted a framework based on many value theories, such as Schwartz (1994) and Maslow (1943) hierarchy of needs. In the framework, the authors place the value on two dimensions; (1) with actions that drive human behaviour which can be personal, central or social goals, and (2) motivators that represent human needs which can split into thriving and survival needs (Gouveia et al., 2014). Values are not only described in theory from a psychological perspective as outlined in the previous paragraph, but have also been practically implemented and used by means of Applied Ethics to professional domains. For example, in the medical field, which uses BioEthics to describe the values that are important as guiding principles for biomedical professionals, such as physicians, nurses and health workers. Beauchamp and Walters (1999) describe 4 values as basis for the framework of BioEthics: 1) Autonomy: acting
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