42 2 CHAPTER 2 intentionally without controlling influences that would mitigate against a voluntary act, 2) Beneficence: providing benefits for society as a whole, 3) Justice: being fair and reasonable and 4) Non-maleficence: not intentionally imposing risk or harm upon another. Based on our literature review, we selected two value theories for our previous study (Verdiesen, 2017); one derived from the Psychological literature and the other based on Applied Ethics which is a practical application of Moral Philosophy. The first theory we selected is that of Cheng and Fleischmann (2010), because in their meta-inventory of human values they created a comprehensive list of 16 human values that is based on the values found in 12 separate studies. In our opinion, this meta-analysis captures the most important values listed by other researchers and it is an empirical example derived from the psychological literature. The second Value Theory we selected is an example of Applied Ethics that has been extensively practiced in the medical domain for over forty years. We investigated its applicability to Autonomous Weapon Systems, because the BioEthics principles address many concerns that people might have regarding Autonomous Weapon Systems. 2.6 VALUES RELATED TO AUTONOMOUS WEAPON SYSTEMS Values as described in the value theories in section 2.5 are not often explicitly mentioned in the literature on Autonomous Weapon Systems, but the studies mentioned in Table 5 in appendix C discuss different values or related ethical issues related to Autonomous Weapon Systems. Two public reports of Human Rights Watch mention the lack of human emotion, accountability, responsibility, lack of human dignity and harm as values related to Autonomous Weapon Systems (Docherty, 2012, 2015). Sharkey and Suchman (2013) state that the values of accountability and responsibility are important to consider in the design of Robotic Systems for military operations. De Ágreda (2020) studied the CCW’s proposal of Guiding Principles on Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems and the values beneficence/ relative beneficence, human dignity, fairness and Meaningful Human Control are mentioned in these principles. In the field of Military Ethics, Johnson and Axinn (2013) list responsibility, reduction of human harm, human dignity, honour and human sacrifice as values in their discussion on if the decision to take a human life should be handed over to a machine or not. Cummings (2006b) in her case study of the Tactical Tomahawk missile, looks at the universal values proposed by Friedman and Kahn Jr (2003) and states that next to accountability and informed consent, the value of human welfare is fundamental core value for engineers when developing weapons as it relates to the health, safety and welfare of the public.
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