56 2 CHAPTER 2 it is a dynamic system with responses that evolve in time and has memory of past responses, (2) it requires stability to function without failure, (3) it contains a feedback mechanism with sensors and detectors to determine the accuracy of control, and (4) dynamic compensation to approximate the performance limits of the components of the control system (Kheir et al., 1996). The traditional engineering perspective holds a very mechanical or cybernetic view on the notion of control, one that is not well-suited to make sense of the interaction between a human agent and an intelligent system for which the human is to remain accountable. Socio-technical perspective The socio-technical perspective on control describes which agent has the power to influence the behaviour of another agent (Koppell, 2005). An agent can be human or a technological system. The influence of one agent over another is often mediated by technology and it also includes controlling the technology. It involves instruments to direct the behaviour of agents like legal regulations, sanctions or political instructions (Mulgan, 2000). Unlike the engineering one, this notion of control is intrinsically connected to the achievement of shared (social) tasks and goals, concerns the relation between human agents and it is therefore potentially relevant to the idea of accountability. Scott (2000) makes a distinction between ex ante and ex post control. Ex ante involvement in decision- making is related to managerial control and accountability-based control is linked to ex post oversight. Busuioc (2007) also conceptualizes control based on this temporal dimension. She differentiates three types of control in a principal-agent relationship: 1. Ex ante or proactive control which is a preliminary control mechanism that defines the boundaries of the autonomy of agents to achieve a delegated task; 2. Ongoing or simultaneous control which is an informal type of direct control of an agent that specifies the goals but not the specific actions an agent has to take to achieve a delegated task; 3. Ex post control or accountability which is the principle of delegating powers to an agent and therefore renounced direct control. It is a process of providing information, discussion and evaluation to determine the extent to which the agent has lived up to its ex ante mandate and has acted within its zone of discretion after the fact. Control from a socio-technical perspective is power-oriented and aimed to influence behaviour of agents making use of ex ante, ongoing or ex post instruments. However, it does not explicitly include mechanisms of power over nonhuman intelligent systems, like Autonomous Weapon Systems.
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