72 3 CHAPTER 3 Ex ante supervision Ex ante control Ongoing control Ex post review Ex post control (accountability) Input Feedback mechanism Output Goal of system Behavior of system Oversight of system Governance layer Socio-technical layer Technical layer Time Environment External Internal Socio-technical perspective on control Engineering perspective on control Governance perspective on control 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Figure 9: Comprehensive Human Oversight Framework for Autonomous Weapon Systems This notion of executive autonomy has implications for the applicability of military control instruments for Weapon Systems with different levels of autonomy, including fully Autonomous Weapon Systems. In the different phases executive autonomy implies that: a. Before deployment of an Autonomous Weapon System, i. In the technical layer the human will set the input (e.g. predefined criteria), ii. This will be based on the ex-ante control measures, for example the Rules of Engagement, in the social-technical layer. iii. and this will be done within the boundaries of the ex-ante supervision mechanism, such as the mission mandate, in the governance layer. b. During deployment of an Autonomous Weapon System, i. In the technical layer, the Autonomous Weapon System itself conducts the feedback loop, as found in most (industrial) control systems, to take action to minimize the difference between outcome and goal (for example heat seeking missiles). ii. In the socio-technical layer the mechanism of ongoing control means that the goals are specified by a human before deployment, but the human does not specify the actions that the weapon has to take to achieve that goal. There is no ongoing control mechanism or instrument for fully Autonomous Weapon
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