143 C underscores how in some cases minorities opt for in-group favoritism where they are more likely to opt for favoring the out-group in other cases (see Chapter 2). Furthermore, the exploration of heuristics theory provided a lens to comprehend the role of identity-based cues in shaping the decision-making processes of voting citizens. I unraveled the dynamics that underlie voter expectations of Muslim politicians’ views on same-sex adoption. Many political scientists characterize the reliance on stereotypes as a form of heuristic decision-making in low-information settings, often referred to as heuristics, shortcuts, or cues. These heuristics serve as vital tools for simplifying the decision-making process, particularly in the face of difficult choices. Projection also offers a readily accessible heuristic, enabling voting citizens to anticipate politicians’ stances based on their own perspectives. The relationship between stereotype formation, projection, and perceived similarity are factors in shaping voter expectations of Muslim politicians. I reveal that while some voting citizens tend to stereotype Muslim politicians, projecting their opinions onto Muslim politicians is also prevalent. The interaction between these mechanisms, as well as the influence of perceived similarity to Muslims, contributes to voter expectations. These findings challenge assumptions about the prevalence of stereotyping alone and introduce the role of projection in addition to stereotyping to political science (Chapter 4). Some voting citizens are highly committed to diversity and inclusivity and may possess a different understanding of Muslim politicians and their potential policy positions. As such, they may be less likely to rely solely on stereotypes and more inclined to engage in projection while considering the diversity within Muslim communities and the struggles Muslim politicians face. This dissertation sheds light on the challenges that hinder both the descriptive and substantive representation of Muslims in the political arena. Non-Muslim voting citizens exhibit biases against Muslim politicians and the policies Muslims tend to stand for, which in turn creates multidimensional underrepresentation. Consequently, party selectors grapple with the inclusion of Muslim politicians due to the fear of alienating both voting citizens who oppose Muslims and those who disagree with the policy positions associated with Muslims. This conundrum perpetuates a cycle of underrepresentation, impacting both Muslim politicians and the policies Muslim citizens stand for. The outcome could be called symbolic underrepresentation, leaving Muslims and their views alienated, unrepresented and disengaged from the democratic process. This dissertation highlights how biases, policy positions, heuristics and representation contribute to the challenges Muslims face in achieving meaningful and equitable political representation.
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