24 minority citizens of France, Germany and the Netherlands. In this dissertation, I have discovered that the connection between Muslim politicians and Muslim voters is strong, showing a positive relationship in terms of voting patterns within their group, particularly in contexts with examples of Muslim politicians who stand for the same policy positions as most Muslim citizens. Conversely, the relationship between non-religious voters and Muslim politicians is comparable in strength but notably negative, possibly driven by stereotypes of the policy positions that Muslim politicians might stand for. Within the post-9/11 European context, Muslims have become a highly salient group. This research sheds light on the unique role of Muslims in current European politics, while also revealing broader insights into the dynamics experienced by underrepresented and marginalized groups in the political arena. Understanding these dynamics is key to establishing equitable minority representation and fostering diversity in our increasingly multicultural societies. What is representation and why do we need it? Understanding the dynamics and implications of in-group voting offers insights into which mechanisms can empower underrepresented and marginalized groups, enabling their voices to be heard and their concerns addressed within the political sphere. Ingroup voting is, therefore, essential within the larger framework of understanding political representation. Several scholars have advocated for fair political representation, highlighting its moral and epistemic importance and underscoring its critical role in the functioning of our democracies (Mansbridge, 1999, 2003; Williams, 2000; Young, 2000). When minority citizens receive adequate representation, it enhances the legitimacy of the democratic system, affirming the principle that every voice and vote holds equal importance (idem). This inclusive approach to political involvement not only upholds justice and strengthens democracy but also fulfills the moral mandate of fostering a political landscape where every citizen’s voice is acknowledged and valued. This dissertation aims to examine the role in-group voting might play in the political representation of minority groups. To understand representation, I use the framework laid out in Hanna Pitkin’s canonical work, The Concept of Representation (1967), which conceptualizes representation using four dimensions. First, formalistic representation consists of the “authorization” and “accountability” that representation begins and usually ends with (Pitkin, 1967: 51, 57). Second, descriptive representation concerns the degree to which representatives are “sufficiently like” those they represent (1967: 81). Third, substantive representation concerns the “activity to speak for, act for, [and] look after the interests of their respective groups” (1967: 117). Fourth, symbolic representation refers to the “state of mind, the condition of satisfaction or belief,” and includes the question of whether “the representative [is] believed in” (1967: 106, 102). Pitkin describes symbolic representation as “the symbol’s power to evoke feelings or attitudes” (1967: 97). I understand symbolic
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