50 1 Results The unjust and useful stereotypes schools both focus on candidate characteristics from the perspective of the general or majority (white) population. The shared identification school focusses on racial/ethnic congruence, bringing in the perspective of the minority population. First, we analyze the results from the perspective of the general population, following the ideas of the unjust and useful stereotypes schools. Second, we analyze the results from the shared identification school, from the perspective of racial/ethnic subgroups. Unjust or useful stereotypes? Based on an N of 255,037 observations, our meta-analysis reveals that voters on average tend to assess racial/ethnic minority candidates 0.235 percentage points higher than the racial/ethnic majority reference category (i.e. white candidates in the US context), as displayed in Figure 1. This estimate is close to zero and statistically insignificant, therefore we consider this to be a null-effect. In Figure 2, 3 and 4 we consider whether there might be differences across race/ethnicity and focus on the three most researched racial/ethnic minority groups: Blacks, Latinx and Asians, almost all drawing on the US. Figure 2 depicts the results of the meta-analysis with only Black candidates, based on 89,711 observations. The result is another slightly positive overall effect size (0.66 percentage points) which is not statistically significant. We also consider this a nullresult. Almost all studies are sampled from US-populations, except for two that study Brazil. The study by Armendariz et al (2020) is the largest positive effect; they study how being involved in a protest interacts with candidate race/ethnicity and find that left-leaning candidates tend to reward political candidates who were involved in (leftleaning protests). This interaction might have influenced the overall outcome, causing this study to come out as having the highest effect size (and a relatively large standard error). Overall, Black candidates receive approximately the same assessments as the reference category, white candidates.
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