51 1 Figure 1. How do voters assesss racial/ethnic minority political candidates? n = 19404 | b = −0.028 n = 300 | b = −0.011 n = 9027 | b = −0.002 n = 672 | b = 0.082 n = 672 | b = 0.053 n = 2262 | b = 0.013 n = 2286 | b = 0.007 n = 2268 | b = 0.023 n = 1950 | b = 0.03 n = 1911 | b = 0.016 n = 1941 | b = 0.042 n = 1950 | b = 0.009 n = 1911 | b = 0.003 n = 1941 | b = 0.001 n = 5113 | b = 0.003 n = 5129 | b = −0.012 n = 954 | b = 0.055 n = 2087 | b = −0.004 n = 1898 | b = −0.003 n = 2087 | b = −0.004 n = 1898 | b = −0.003 n = 4517 | b = 0.014 n = 4532 | b = 0.011 n = 4496 | b = 0.008 n = 767 | b = 0.015 n = 750 | b = 0.008 n = 750 | b = 0.045 n = 347 | b = 0.051 n = 150 | b = 0.02 n = 257 | b = 0.009 n = 37 | b = −0.009 n = 3323 | b = −0.049 n = 1950 | b = −0.012 n = 1911 | b = 0.002 n = 1941 | b = 0.028 n = 700 | b = 0.038 n = 700 | b = 0.076 n = 605 | b = 0.098 n = 617 | b = 0.035 n = 545 | b = −0.016 n = 563 | b = 0.042 n = 577 | b = 0.038 n = 591 | b = 0.007 n = 617 | b = −0.004 n = 545 | b = −0.012 n = 563 | b = −0.018 n = 577 | b = −0.004 n = 591 | b = −0.014 n = 471 | b = −0.068 n = 471 | b = −0.064 n = 471 | b = −0.04 n = 942 | b = −0.048 n = 3322 | b = 0.046 n = 3358 | b = −0.004 n = 3322 | b = 0.031 n = 3358 | b = 0.009 n = 1103 | b = 0.027 n = 1740 | b = 0.002 n = 1129 | b = −0.01 n = 3058 | b = 0.019 n = 2956 | b = 0.001 n = 3057 | b = 0.029 n = 3058 | b = −0.002 n = 2956 | b = 0 n = 3057 | b = 0.008 n = 2890 | b = −0.001 n = 2786 | b = −0.027 n = 2870 | b = −0.015 n = 2890 | b = −0.015 n = 2786 | b = −0.012 n = 2870 | b = −0.007 n = 72 | b = −0.1 n = 81 | b = 0.051 n = 989 | b = −0.003 n = 946 | b = −0.02 n = 550 | b = −0.034 n = 989 | b = 0.007 n = 946 | b = −0.01 n = 550 | b = −0.016 n = 6393 | b = 0.024 n = 6197 | b = 0.019 n = 6242 | b = 0.02 n = 266 | b = 0.024 n = 266 | b = 0.009 n = 1133 | b = 0.002 n = 1133 | b = 0 n = 1814 | b = 0.052 n = 1818 | b = 0.013 n = 1248 | b = 0.046 n = 1814 | b = 0.004 n = 1818 | b = 0 n = 1248 | b = 0.008 n = 4353 | b = −0.05 n = 3014 | b = −0.05 n = 7904 | b = −0.011 n = 7892 | b = −0.022 n = 7920 | b = −0.016 n = 555 | b = −0.029 n = 594 | b = −0.044 n = 587 | b = −0.006 n = 1108 | b = −0.023 n = 1106 | b = −0.03 n = 1125 | b = −0.005 n = 412 | b = 0.02 n = 412 | b = 0.02 n = 412 | b = 0.03 n = 4778 | b = −0.056 n = 7669 | b = −0.001 n = 4684 | b = −0.002 n = 2540 | b = 0.016 n = 1974 | b = −0.028 n = 1974 | b = −0.002 n = 253627 | b = 0.002 Overall | | Summary Random Effects Estimate | Choice and Rating Gutierrez−Romero 2020 | Kenya | Luo (refcat Kikiyu) | Choice Armendariz et al. 2021 | US | Black | Choice Gershon et al. 2019 | US | Latinx | Choice Carnes et al. 2015 | US | Black | Choice Armendariz et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Choice Manento et al. 2021 | US | Black | Choice Costa 2021 (study 3) | US | Black | Rating Krupnikov et al. 2016 (MTurk sample) | US | Black | Choice Kaslovsky et al. 2021 | US | Black | Choice Manento et al. 2021 | US | Asian | Choice Costa 2021 (study 2) | US | Asian | Rating Badas et al. 2021 | US | Asian | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Asian | Choice Gershon et al. 2019 | US | Black | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Native | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Black | Choice Kaslovsky et al. 2021 | US | Black | Rating Badas et al. 2021 | US | Black | Choice Sen 2017 | US | Asian | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (MTurk sample) | US | Asian | Choice Funck et al. 2021 | US | Asian | Choice Kevins 2019 | Canada | Asian | Rating Lemi and Brown 2020 | US | Darker woman (refcat lighter) | Rating 1 Lemi et al. 2020 | US | Black | Choice Atkeson et al. 2020 | US | Asian | Choice Costa 2021 (study 3) | US | Latinx | Rating Lemi et al. 2020 | US | Asian | Choice Sen 2017 | US | Black | Rating Sen 2017 | US | Latinx | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (MTurk sample) | US | Black | Choice Lemi et al. 2020 | US | Latinx | Choice Badas et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Choice Visalvanich 2017 | US | Asian | Choice Costa 2021 (study 2) | US | Black | Rating Costa 2021 (study 1) | US | Black | Choice Atkeson et al. 2020 | US | Black | Choice Manento et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Choice Costa 2021 (study 1) | US | Latinx | Choice Badas et al. 2021 | US | Black | Rating Costa 2021 (study 3) | US | Asian | Rating Kaslovsky et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Rating Lemi and Brown 2020 | US | Darker woman (refcat lighter) | Rating 2 Costa 2021 (study 1) | US | Asian | Choice Costa 2021 (study 2) | US | Latinx | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (MTurk sample) | US | Asian | Rating Manento et al. 2021 | US | Asian | Rating Atkeson et al. 2020 | US | Latinx | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Caucasian | Choice Leeper et al. 2020 | US | Black | Rating Manento et al. 2021 | US | Black | Rating Badas et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Rating Banerjee et al. 2014 | India | OBC (refcat general) | Choice Funck et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Choice Kevins 2019 | US | Asian | Rating Lerman et al. 2016 | US | Black | Rating Badas et al. 2021 | US | Asian | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (MTurk sample) | US | Latinx | Choice Kirkland et al. 2018 (MTurk sample) | US | Latinx | Rating Lerman et al. 2016 | US | Black | Choice Manento et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (YouGov sample) | US | Black | Choice Visalvanich 2017 | US | Black | Choice Aguilar et al. 2015 (study 2) | Brazil | Black | Choice Kirkland et al. 2018 (MTurk sample) | US | Black | Rating Visalvanich 2017 | US | Latinx | Choice Weaver 2012 | US | Black | Rating Carey et al. 2019 | US | Latinx | Choice Carey et al. 2020 | US | Latinx | Choice Leeper et al. 2020 | US | Black | Choice Carey et al. 2019 | US | Black | Choice Carey et al. 2020 | US | Black | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Black | Rating Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Native | Rating Kaslovsky et al. 2021 | US | Latinx | Choice Sances 2021 | US | Asian | Choice Peterson et al. 2017 | US | Asian | Choice Kirkland et al. 2018 (YouGov sample) | US | Asian | Rating Costa 2021 (study 3) | US | Native American | Rating Kevins 2019 | UK | Asian | Rating Leeper et al. 2020 | US | Latinx | Rating Aguilar et al. 2015 (study 1) | Brazil | Black | Choice Ono et al. 2019 | US | Black | Choice Banerjee et al. 2014 | India | SC (refcat general) | Choice Funck et al. 2021 | US | Black | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Latinx | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (YouGov sample) | US | Latinx | Rating Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Caucasian | Rating Kirkland et al. 2018 (YouGov sample) | US | Asian | Choice Kirkland et al. 2018 (YouGov sample) | US | Black | Rating Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Latinx | Choice Leeper et al. 2020 | US | Asian | Rating Ono et al. 2019 | US | Asian | Choice Hainmueller et al. 2014 | US | Asian | Rating Leeper et al. 2020 | US | Latinx | Choice Ono et al. 2019 | US | Latinx | Choice Sances 2021 | US | Black | Choice Kirkland et al. 2018 (YouGov sample) | US | Latinx | Choice Abrajano 2018 (words and pictures combined) | US | Latinx | Choice Weaver 2012 | US | Black | Choice Peterson et al. 2017 | US | Black | Choice Sances 2021 | US | Latinx | Choice Leeper et al. 2020 | US | Asian | Choice Kang et al. 2021 | Australia | Indian | Choice Peterson et al. 2017 | US | Latinx | Choice Kang et al. 2021 | Australia | Born outside Australia | Choice Dahl et al. 2020 | Denmark | Immigrant (refcat Danish) | Choice Mummolo et al. 2019 | US | Black | Choice Mummolo et al. 2019 | US | Latinx | Choice Snagovsky et al. 2020 | Australia | Born outside Australia (refcat born in) | Choice Kang et al. 2021 | Australia | Chinese | Choice Kang et al. 2021 | Australia | Middle Eastern | Choice Krupnikov et al. 2016 (Undergrad sample) | US | Black | Choice −0.2 −0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Average effect size Study | Country | Which race/ethnicity | Dependent Variable Voters do not assess racial/ethnic minority candidates differently than majority (white) candidates. The overall effect size is 0.00235, racial/ethnic minority candidates are not at an average significant disadvantage. We base this summary random effects estimate on 253.627 observations across 112 different studies/races/ethnicities/dependent variables in the period 2012−2022. Figure 1: How do voters assess racial/ethnic minority political candidates?
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